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An Overview of Ocean Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature, Ocean Heat Content, Ocean pH, Dissolved Oxygen Concentration, Arctic Sea Ice Extent, Thickness and Volume, Sea Level and Strength of the AMOC (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation)

  • Author(s): Garcia-Soto C, Cheng L, Caesar L, Schmidtko S, Jewett EB, Cheripka A, Rigor I, Caballero A, Chiba S, Báez JC, Zielinski T and Abraham JP
  • Frontiers in Marine Science
  • September 20, 2021
Citation: Garcia-Soto C, Cheng L, Caesar L, Schmidtko S, Jewett EB, Cheripka A, Rigor I, Caballero A, Chiba S, Báez JC, Zielinski T and Abraham JP (2021) An Overview of Ocean Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature, Ocean Heat Content, Ocean pH, Dissolved Oxygen Concentration, Arctic Sea Ice Extent, Thickness and Volume, Sea Level and Strength of the AMOC (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation). Front. Mar. Sci. 8:642372. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2021.642372

Global ocean physical and chemical trends are reviewed and updated using seven key ocean climate change indicators: (i) Sea Surface Temperature, (ii) Ocean Heat Content, (iii) Ocean pH, (iv) Dissolved Oxygen concentration (v) Arctic Sea Ice extent, thickness, and volume (vi) Sea Level and (vii) the strength of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). The globally averaged ocean surface temperature shows a mean warming trend of 0.062 ± 0.013°C per decade over the last 120 years (1900–2019). During the last decade (2010–2019) the rate of ocean surface warming has accelerated to 0.280 ± 0.068°C per decade, 4.5 times higher than the long term mean. Ocean Heat Content in the upper 2,000 m shows a linear warming rate of 0.35 ± 0.08 Wm–2 in the period 1955–2019 (65 years). The warming rate during the last decade (2010–2019) is twice (0.70 ± 0.07 Wm–2) the warming rate of the long term record. Each of the last six decades have been warmer than the previous one. Global surface ocean pH has declined on average by approximately 0.1 pH units (from 8.2 to 8.1) since the industrial revolution (1770). By the end of this century (2100) ocean pH is projected to decline additionally by 0.1–0.4 pH units depending on the RCP (Representative Concentration Pathway) and SSP (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways) future scenario. The time of emergence of the pH climate change signal varies from 8 to 15 years for open ocean sites, and 16–41 years for coastal sites. Global dissolved oxygen levels have decreased by 4.8 petamoles or 2% in the last 5 decades, with profound impacts on local and basin scale habitats. Regional trends are varying due to multiple processes impacting dissolved oxygen: solubility change, respiration changes, ocean circulation changes and multidecadal variability. Arctic sea ice extent has been declining by −13.1% per decade in summer (September) and by −2.6% per decade in winter (March) during the last 4 decades (1979–2020). The combined trends of sea ice extent and sea ice thickness indicate that the volume of non-seasonal Arctic Sea Ice has decreased by 75% since 1979. Global mean sea level has increased in the period 1993–2019 (the altimetry era) at a mean rate of 3.15 ± 0.3 mm year–1 and is experiencing an acceleration of ∼ 0.084 (0.06–0.10) mm year–2. During the last century (1900–2015; 115y) global mean sea level (GMSL) has rised 19 cm, and near 40% of that GMSL rise has taken place since 1993 (22y). Independent proxies of the evolution of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) indicate that AMOC is at its weakest for several hundreds of years and has been slowing down during the last century. A final visual summary of key ocean climate change indicators during the recent decades is provided.

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Effects of ocean acidification and temperature on Alaskan crabs

Red King Crab
Image credit: David Csepp, NMFS AKFSC ABL

Long-term declines of red king crab in Bristol Bay, Alaska may be partially attributed to ocean acidification conditions. These impacts may be partially responsible for the fishery closures during the 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 seasons. Researchers found that ocean acidification negatively impacts Alaskan crabs generally by changing physiological processes, decreasing growth, increasing death rates and reducing shell thickness. Funded by the Ocean Acidification Program, scientists at the Alaska Fisheries Science Center continue to investigate the responses of early life history stages and study the potential of various Alaska crabs to acclimate to changing conditions. Results will inform models that will use the parameters studied to predict the effects of future ocean acidification on the populations of red king crab in Bristol Bay as well as on the fisheries that depend on them. Fishery managers will better be able to anticipate and manage stocks if changing ocean chemistry affects stock productivity and thus the maximum sustainable yield.

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Forecasts for Alaska Fisheries

Crab pots and fishing nets in Alaska's Dutch Harbor
Image credit: Michael Theberge

Understanding seasonal changes in ocean acidification in Alaskan waters and the potential impacts to the multi-billion-dollar fishery sector is a main priority. Through work funded by NOAA’s Ocean Acidification Program, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory developed a model capable of depicting past ocean chemistry conditions for the Bering Sea and is now testing the ability of this model to forecast future conditions. This model is being used to develop an ocean acidification indicator provided to fisheries managers in the annual NOAA Eastern Bering Sea Ecosystem Status Report.

ADAPTING TO OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

The NOAA Ocean Acidification Program (OAP) works to prepare society to adapt to the consequences of ocean acidification and conserve marine ecosystems as acidification occurs. Learn more about the human connections and adaptation strategies from these efforts.

Adaptation approaches fostered by the OAP include:

FORECASTING

Using models and research to understand the sensitivity of organisms and ecosystems to ocean acidification to make predictions about the future, allowing communities and industries to prepare

Closeup of oysters cupped in someone's hands

MANAGEMENT

Using these models and predictions as tools to facilitate management strategies that will protect marine resources and communities from future changes

TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

Developing innovative tools to help monitor ocean acidification and mitigate changing ocean chemistry locally

REDUCING OUR CARBON FOOTPRINT

50 more ways to reduce your carbon footprint >

On the Road

Drive fuel-efficient vehicles or choose public transportation. Choose your bike or walk! Don't sit idle for more than 30 seconds. Keep your tires properly inflated.

With your Food Choices

Eat local- this helps cut down on production and transport! Reduce your meat and dairy. Compost to avoid food waste ending up in the landfill

With your Food Choices

Make energy-efficient choices for your appliances and lighting. Heat and cool efficiently! Change your air filters and program your thermostat, seal and insulate your home, and support clean energy sources

By Reducing Coastal Acidification

Reduce your use of fertilizers, Improve sewage treatment and run off, and Protect and restore coastal habitats

TAKE ACTION WITH YOUR COMMUNITY

You've taken the first step to learn more about ocean acidification - why not spread this knowledge to your community?

Every community has their unique culture, economy and ecology and what’s at stake from ocean acidification may be different depending on where you live.  As a community member, you can take a larger role in educating the public about ocean acidification. Creating awareness is the first step to taking action.  As communities gain traction, neighboring regions that share marine resources can build larger coalitions to address ocean acidification.  Here are some ideas to get started:

  1. Work with informal educators, such as aquarium outreach programs and local non-profits, to teach the public about ocean acidification. Visit our Education & Outreach page to find the newest tools!
  2. Participate in habitat restoration efforts to restore habitats that help mitigate the effects of coastal acidification
  3. Facilitate conversations with local businesses that might be affected by ocean acidification, building a plan for the future.
  4. Partner with local community efforts to mitigate the driver behind ocean acidification  – excess CO2 – such as community supported agriculture, bike & car shares and other public transportation options.
  5. Contact your regional Coastal Acidification Network (CAN) to learn how OA is affecting your region and more ideas about how you can get involved in your community
       More for Taking Community Action